• Skip to primary navigation
  • Skip to main content
  • Skip to primary sidebar
  • Skip to footer

THE BRIGHTEST HUB FOR HEALTH AND WELLNESS

  • Home
  • Health
  • Medicine
  • Alternative Medicine
  • Diet and Nutrition

Genetics

Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering in Humans

June 16, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

DNA
DNA, the molecular basis for inheritance (Image from Wikimedia Commons)

Tweaking a gene or two can bring the desired changes in human body but the technique brings along several moral and ethical issues.

You will have a perfect face if that stub of a nose you got from your father is sharpened a bit. Susceptibility to seasonal allergies is another issue that hassles you day in and day out. We all have something which needs to be altered and made perfect. Developments in science may make such modifications a reality through the use of genetic engineering.

However, the technology is still inviting lots of debates and controversies related to its optimum use. Here we discuss the pros and cons of genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering means alteration of your gene structure to replace any dysfunctional gene with a more efficient one. For instance, if somebody is suffering from cancer, his mutated genes can be replaced with healthy ones through genetic engineering. Another use can be to prevent any family disorder from passing on to a child through gene alteration.

Genetic engineering can either happen through intervention in the sperm and egg cells or via introduction of a viral vector carrying the healthy gene into the body of a person.  Not many people know that one of the first uses of genetic engineering was for production of synthetic insulin which has proved to be a great boon for diabetics.

Pros of Genetic Engineering

As explained above, there are several reasons why genetic engineering can work wonders for the human race. Though we have progressed a lot from the times when smallpox, chickenpox and plague used to wipe out entire cities, new and more lethal diseases like cancer, AIDS, cardiac ailments and Alzheimer’s are still a challenge.

Auto immune diseases are another set of disorders which are troubling several people around the world and are still a mystery for scientists.  With genetic engineering, we can hope to weed out these diseases from their roots which means replacing the faulty genes that allow them to exist and flourish in our bodies. Development of medicines specific to genetic makeup of each individual to get the best results can be one of the pros of genetic engineering.

Not only the diseased and hapless but even healthy and sound can look forward to reap benefits of the technique. Scientists are talking about longer lifespans since the ageing process can be stopped by tweaking particular genes. In fact, not only life spans but complete reversal of time – from old age to childhood or youth – may become a reality.

[ad#co-1]

Cons of Genetic Engineering

Though benefits of genetic engineering may seem like our ultimate dreams coming true, it is not so easy. There are various risks as well as moral and ethical dilemmas associated with the technique right now. Scientists are still experimenting with genetic engineering and some of these attempts have resulted in death of the subjects because there is still no clarity on how and in what way the healthy genes can be introduced in a body. In addition, the risks of making such an alteration are also not known. There can be an inherent capacity in human body to resist any attempt for genetic makeover by making corresponding changes in the genes elsewhere.

The risk of creating a seemingly perfect race is also manifold. Due to diversity of genes, there are some people who are more prone to a certain disease while there are others who are completely resistant to it. Since with the ‘perfect gene’ theory, we will all be genetically same, a new and more lethal disease can finish off the whole human population in one go.

On the other hand, if there are only a few who get this benefit of having a perfect gene, there will be discrimination. A few “mentally and physically perfect” people ruling large number of lesser mortals can be one of the cons of genetic engineering.

Parents will start making a beeline to have a “designer baby” who can bend it like Beckham and sing it like Bryan Adams while having the looks of Tom Cruise.

So is it really necessary for scientists to play God and change the genetic character of people to make them healthy or increase their life spans? Maybe with time and greater knowledge, we get to understand things better. Moral and ethical issues aside, genetic engineering holds a great scope in medical field and restricting the use of this technology only to deal with chronic and deadly diseases can be the solution which helps us all.

[ad#afterpost]

Filed Under: Biology, Genetics

The Pros and Cons of Genetic Testing

June 15, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

Genetic testing is a boon for mankind but there is a need to exercise restraint and prevent its misuse.

DNA_animation
DNA animation (Wikimedia Image)

How come you have the same beaming smile as that of your mother or the same passion for music as that of your father? It’s amazing how we are so much like our blood relatives. The reason is the presence of genes that all our family members, old and new, share. However, despite this commonality every one of us is genetically unique with a genetic pattern which may resemble that of our relatives but is not exactly the same.

There are around 20,000 to 25,000 genes which define the strengths and weaknesses of our bodies. An alteration in their normal functioning can lead to various complications like putting us at risk of heart disease, cancer, diabetes or birth defect. Genetic testing can predict these risk factors and help us take precautions but there are several side effects that also come along. The mapping of total human genetic structure has also paved the way for targeted medicinal use. It can be found out which medicines will get the best results depending on your genetic makeup. Read on to know more.

Pros of genetic testing

Medical science is making progress at a fast pace that there are now several genetic tests available to help you know about your body as well as about your yet-to-be born child. In fact, prenatal genetic testing is increasingly being recommended by doctors to avoid several birth disorders including thalassemia, haemophilia, and mental and physical retardation. Carrier testing of parents and screening of fetus and newborns is becoming increasingly common. However, prenatal genetic testing can also pose risks like miscarriages.

Besides detecting medical conditions, genetic testing is also turning out to be beneficial in forensic science. For instance, identification of criminals by putting a hair strand or blood found on the crime scene through genetic testing.

Genealogical genetic testing can also be done to find links between you and another person even if there is a difference of several generations.

Pros of genetic testing even extend to those at risk of several diseases, like cancer, heart disease and diabetes, to take precautions and delay the onset of these diseases. While cancer is known to be result of a gene mutation, heart disease and diabetes run in families for generations. If a person knows that he carries a gene for a certain disease, he will then take the necessary precautions to prevent or delay the development for such disease. For example, he can change his diet and lifestyle habits to delay or even prevent the development of the disease.

Genetic testing is particularly important in the emerging field of personalized medicine. You will be given the right treatment based on your genetic makeup. In this case, you and other patients may receive different drug and dosage for a particular illness.

Cons of Genetic Testing

While physical risks associated with genetic testing are not very significant, there are ethical, financial, and psychological issues that do get highlighted every now and then. It’s essential that those going for testing are given genetic counseling to prepare them for the outcomes.  There are also risks of genetic discrimination since insurance companies and employers can avoid offering services or jobs to those at risk of certain diseases. Thus, it’s essential that information from genetic testing is kept confidential at all costs to protect individuals from any kind of genetic discrimination.

Another addition in the list of cons of genetic testing is commercialization. With the high price of genetic testing, many cannot afford to avail the services of testing centers. In fact, genetic testing in some firms is overpriced but these firms are enjoying the profits they make every day. Genetic testing should be affordable to everyone whatever their economic conditions are.[ad#afterpost]

Filed Under: Genetics, Medicine

The Differences Between Lytic and Lysogenic Cycle

June 14, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

Lytic and Lysogenic cycles
Lytic cycle, compared to lysogenic cycle (Wikimedia Image)

What is a virus?

Viruses are among the simplest organisms on Earth. They are invisible to the naked eye as their size ranges from 20-400 nanometers, 10-100 times smaller than a bacterium. They are made up of at least one protein and a single- or double-stranded nucleic acid enclosed by a protective protein covering called capsid which contains enzymes that allow them to enter their host cell. Their genome is contained in their nucleic acid which may either be a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) but never both. Because of this, the type of their nucleic acid became the basis of their major classification: DNA viruses and RNA viruses.

Viruses can be considered living and non-living. Non-living in the sense that they  are acellular (not made up cytoplasm and organelles) and cannot carry out basic biological functions such as growth and replication on their own. In order to reproduce, they need to enter a host cell (a bacterium), thus, viruses are obligatory parasitic in nature. While outside a host cell, they remain in a state of dormancy where biological processes are arrested. But once inside their host cell, they replicate at a very fast rate, hence they become ‘living’ entities.

Viral Reproduction

There are two cycles in viral reproduction, the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle. The former is considered the main mode of reproduction which eventually leads to the disruption of the host cell thereby releasing viral progeny ready to infect other cells. The latter on the other hand can occur without causing harm to the host cell.

A virus that uses a bacterium to replicate is called a bacteriophage. Bacteriophages can be further classified into two based on the process they use to reproduce. Those that go through the lytic cycle to replicate are called lytic bacteriophages while phages that replicate by means of the lysogenic cycle are called Temperate phages. Lytic phages are named so because at the end of their replication, they lyse or disrupt their host bacterium. Temperate phages in contrast can replicate by incorporating their DNA into their host’s DNA without causing bacterial lysis.[ad#co-1]

Lytic Cycle

This cycle consists of 5 stages – Adsorption, Penetration, Replication, Maturation and Release. A sixth stage called Reinfection can also be part of this cycle.

When a bacteriophage infects a bacterium, T4 for example, it attaches itself to the bacterium’s cell wall using its tail fibers. The protein on its tail fibers enables the virus to recognize and attach itself to specific receptor sites in the bacterial cell wall which includes lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins or even a flagellum. The specificity and compatibility of the bacteriophage’s attachment to its host as determined by the type of receptors limit the type of host cell for the bacteriophage. This just means that there are only certain bacteria that can be infected by a particular bacteriophage.

After attachment, the T4 phage releases an enzyme that weakens the cell wall of its host. The weakened area becomes the spot where the phage injects its DNA into the bacterium. Once inside the host, the phage starts to take over its host as it makes great amount of viral proteins and genetic materials (DNA or RNA). The replication in T4 phages specifically involved three phases of mRNA production followed by protein production. When there are enough viral components synthesized, assembly into complete viruses immediately follows. In the case of T4 phages, the protein coded by the phage DNA acts as enzymes for the assembly of new T4 phages. Finally, an enzyme that weakens the host’s cell wall is then released and later on, lysis or disruption of the host bacterium occurs, releasing the newly formed T4 phages.

Lysogenic Cycle

As in the lytic cycle, lysogenic cycle begins with the phage’s attachment to the cell wall followed by the injection of the phage’s genome into its host. However, unlike lytic bacteriophages, temperate bacteriophages do not shut down their host cell. After the genome is injected, it becomes integrated into the host’s DNA and is now called a prophage (phage’s genome incorporated into the bacterial DNA). Since the phage’s genetic material is added with that of the host, it is also replicated when the host cell replicates its DNA and divides. Thus, the viral genetic material is transmitted to bacterial daughter cells at each consequent cell division. The prophage can be cut out from the host’s genome by external factors such as ultraviolet radiation. After being removed, it replicates and produce viral components which ultimately leads to lysis of the host cell.

Differences of Lytic and Lysogenic Cycle

Both the lytic and the lysogenic cycle are means in which a virus reproduce. The main difference of these cycles is that in the lytic cycle, bursting or destruction of the host cell inevitably occurs whereas in the lysogenic cycle, the phage can replicate without harming their host. Another noticeable difference between the two is the number of phages produce after every cycle. More are produced in the lytic cycle whereas there are only 2 in the lysogenic cycle as a result of cell division. Also, the resulting products of the lysogenic cycle can further undergo lytic cycle when triggered by external factors such as radiation. But those that undergo lytic cycle follows each stage until the end solely without any diversion or alternative process from the lysogenic cycle.[ad#afterpost]

Filed Under: Biology, Genetics

Famous Scientist in Genetic Research: James Dewey Watson

June 13, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

James Watson
James D. Watson (Wikimedia Image)

The names Watson and Crick are found in most science textbooks around the world, and indelibly imprinted in humanity’s history. One of the most famous scientists in genetic research, James Dewey Watson, together with Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, successfully identified the correct structure of the building block of life: DNA.

James Watson was a brilliant youth. He entered the University of Chicago at 15 years of age, earning a degree in Zoology. He earned his doctorate degree at the University of Indiana. He went on to conduct postdoctoral research in other laboratories where he was able to work with the best scientific minds in the field of molecular biology at his time. Collaborations with Salvador Luria, Max Debruck, Herman Kalckar and Ole Maaloe helped Watson broaden his horizon and introduced him to molecular biology.

These collaborations built an essential network for Watson. He gained many research ideas as well as became conversant with breaking techniques. At that time, the gene was thought to be the primary carrier of hereditary information, with DNA considered just another simple protein. It took the seminal work of Avery, McCarthy and Mcleod to cast doubt into this belief and shed light into the role of DNA as the genetic molecule.

James Watson and Francis Crick pooled their collective talents together to determine the structure of DNA. Working together at Cavendish Laboratory in England, the pair were in a tight race against Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin of Kings College and Linus Pauling, the progenitor of the alpha helix structure. It took their pooled genius and several narrow turns of fate for Watson and Crick to be the first to publish the double helix structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin was already making the extraordinary photographs of DNA using x-ray diffraction, a technique that chemist Linus Pauling excelled at. Alas, Pauling was unable to attend the conference where Franklin’s photographs were shown since the U.S. Government thought it was not in its best interest to let Pauling travel. Instead, Watson and Crick were there to get inspiration and build upon what they saw. They were further aided by Maurice Wilkins, Franklin’s co-collaborator who showed the duo an unpublished picture. The pair immediately went to work synthesizing and compiling the information they have obtained to formulate the structure of DNA.

With the Pauling’s work on the alpha helix and Franklin’s photograph, Watson and Crick already had the foundation for a theory on DNA structure. The pair theorized that DNA consisted of double helices held together by adenine-thymine, cytosine guanine complementary pairs. These complementary pairings allowed DNA to replicate accurately. The pairs held together the winding ladder structure that Watson and Crick envisioned, serving as rungs and templates upon replication. The three men, James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. This made James Watson one of the most famous scientists in genetic research. Rosalind Franklin was not considered since she had died of cancer in 1958 and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.

The discovery of the structure of DNA launched molecular biology into the spotlight. It began the era of scientific advancement in medicine, virology, nanotechnology and molecular genetics. Watson went on to promote research in this area by heading various laboratories and institutes. His administrative efforts led Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory to revolutionary research in genetics, medicine and heredity.

James Dewey Watson is an exceptional scientist, with a brilliant, precocious mind. Recognizing that science is an interconnected field and that discoveries can be facilitated by networking and communication, he set the tone for further collaborations in science. James Watson blazed his way into the history books and with his will, ambition and talents, paved the way for genetics as we know it today.

Other Famous Scientists in Genetic Research:

  • Linus Pauling
  • Sir Alec Jeffreys
  • Barbara McClintock

[ad#afterpost]

References

  • Elkin, L.O. 2003. Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix. Physics Today
  • Watson, James D., (1980) The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Norton Critical Edition, Gunther Stent, ed. New York, NY
  • Wright, Robert, (1999) Molecular Biologists WATSON & CRICK retrieved June 7 2011 from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990626,00.html

Filed Under: Genetics

Famous Scientist in Genetic Research: Linus Pauling

June 10, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

Linus_Pauling
Linus Pauling (Wikimedia)

Linus Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) has already established himself as one of the premiere scientists in chemistry when he shifted his focus and became a vital force in genetic and biochemical research during the 20th century.  His interest and proficiency in chemistry at a young age led to his achievements in the fields of chemistry, quantum mechanics, biochemistry, genetics, and medical research.

Chemistry

While in Oregon State University (OSU), Pauling became interested in the electronic structure of atoms and how they bonded to form molecules. This interest led him to delve into the relationships between chemical and physical properties of substances and their atomic structure. Thus, with this research focus, he became one of the progenitors of quantum chemistry.

His interest in mathematical chemistry and physics continued. He entered graduate school at the California Institute of Technology, with crystal structure of minerals being his primary research interest. He published seven papers on the subject during his post-graduate stay in Caltech and graduated summa cum laude in 1925 with a doctorate degree in chemistry having strong minors in mathematics and physics.

Eager to learn from the greatest scientific minds of the era, Pauling travelled to Europe and studied under Neils Bohr, Arnold Sommerfeld and Erwin Schrodinger. These men were the leading scientists in quantum mechanics, bringing their individual mathematical and physics experience into this new field of science. Quantum mechanics dealt primarily with the inner workings of atoms and their components and how they interacted to form substances, thus, it was an important step in Pauling’s own research on the electronic structure of atoms and molecules.

Building on his experience in Europe, Pauling continued his research into crystal diffraction initially using x-rays but eventually utilizing electron diffraction technology obtained from Europe. His work encompassed charting bond angles as well as atomic arrangements in crystals. He also delved into ionic bonding, confirming the theoretical concept of electron transfer between ionic atoms to form bonds. It was here that he developed “Pauling’s Five Rules” which provided the theoretical framework for defining the structures of complex compounds, particularly silicoids and metals. His research postulated that magnetic properties play a vital role in both covalent and ionic bonding.

Another of Pauling’s major contributions was in the field of electronegativity. He constructed the electronegativity scale with elements having smaller electronegativity being closer in approaching a pure covalent bond. Additionally, he proposed two important concepts in chemistry, bond orbital hybridization and bond resonance. This allowed scientists to account for structural patterns that occurred but were then unexplainable by empirical formula, thus opening the way for theoretical research in structural stability and geometry.

Pauling was the single unstoppable force in chemistry during the era, having the ability to theoretically predict the structure of undiscovered compounds using his “stochastic method”. His experience and knowledge coupled with his creative mind enabled him to visualize new substances based on rules and established patterns. This proficiency in theoretical mathematics on the mechanics of atoms and molecules yielded fifty papers during his five year tenure as a professor at Cal-tech. Due to his work on the nature of chemical bonds Linus Pauling became the first recipient of the Langmuir award for the most significant scientific contribution by a person less than thirty years of age.
[ad#co-1]

Biochemistry and Genetics

With his background in chemical structures, quantum mechanics and diffraction, Pauling had no difficulty shifting his focus to biological studies during the 1930’s.  His previous work on metallic compounds and crystals gave him a novel approach when tackling the chemistry of biological molecules. This produced the 1940 research on the properties of hemoglobin. His next work on the interactions between antigens and antibodies was the start of his investigations regarding specificity in biochemistry.

Pauling postulated that biological specificity was present at the molecular level, with a molecule of a particular shape fitting into a complementary molecule. This “hand in glove” theory again reaped publications and awards finally leading to Pauling’s proposal in 1946 that the gene might be composed of two complementary strands. Two years later, this idea would form the basis for the alpha helix. Pauling, together with Robert Corey and Herman Brandon proposed that two chains of polypeptides containing complementary strands of amino acids would each coil around each other, resulting in a right handed coil known as the “alpha helix”.

The alpha helix was a step into the search for the structure of DNA. Leading scientists worldwide were vying for the honor of becoming the first to correctly identify DNA’s makeup and structure. Linus Puling was no exception and but for a quirk of fate, he would have had ample chance in the race. Sadly, troubles with his political opinions led the U.S. government to deny him a passport just when he was heading to a scientific convention in England. By chance, this was the same convention where Watson and Crick first saw Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling’s “photo 51”, giving them an idea of DNA’s double helix structure. Pauling put forth his own, triple helix theory based on the limited resources available to him.

Linus Pauling had another significant contribution, this time in the field of molecular genetics. Together with Harvey Itano, S.J. Singer and Ibert Wells, Pauling published a study giving a molecular description to the disease sickle cell anemia. His experience in working with hemoglobin as well as his theory of specificity in biological molecules led him to believe that sickle cells were caused by two complementary sites within an abnormal hemoglobin, thus attracting each other, res Entitled “Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular disease” and published in Science, Pauling and his co-authors used electrophoreses to demonstrate the presence of a modified form of hemoglobin in those who have the disease, while also showing that carrier have both normal and modified forms. This paper was the first to exhibit the role of Mendelian inheritance in determining a protein’s physical properties. It showcased the first genetic disease, accurately showing hereditary patterns and the presence of unaffected carriers. It also showed that genes were not limited to expressions of presence and absence of enzymes but could affect protein properties as well.

From chemistry to biology to genetics, Linus Pauling has impacted most of the scientific revolutions in these three fields. He showed that science actually is interdisciplinary and that techniques, methods and knowledge from one branch can be utilized with success in others.

Other Famous Scientists in Genetic Research:

  • Barbara McClintock
  • Sir Alec Jeffreys
  • James D. Watson

[ad#afterpost]

References

  • Pauling, Linus, Harvey A. Itano, S. J. Singer, Ibert C. Wells (1949). “Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease”. Science 110 (2865): 543–548.
  • Nobel Lectures (1964) Linus Pauling Biography, Chemistry 1942-1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, from Nobel Prize Foundation Linus Pauling Biography. Nobelprize.org. 9 Jun 2011 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/pauling-bio.html

Filed Under: Biology, Genetics

The Genetics of Hazel Eyes

June 6, 2011 by rfcamat Leave a Comment

Environmental colors and lightings alter the appearance of hazel eyes, thus it is difficult to define them. Just like for example, blue, green and hazel eyes are as deep as a pond in which the water appears to be blue if the sky is blue and appears to be gray or brown if the sky is overcast. Captured photographs can testify that without the benefit of the natural scattering of light, hazel eyes habitually appear brown or dark gray.

Hazel Eyes Heredity

Only a few of research studies tell about the heredity or genetics of hazel eye color. But a model studied by Dr. Barry Starr of Stanford University can explain about hazel eye color genetics. According to the him, a new gene which is yet to be found could be a modifier form of the gey gene which is named big (M) that can produce hazel eyes by having the gey that makes more melanin. As with any gene, the big (M) comes with two alleles, the big M which increases the amount of melanin gey makes and the little (m) which has no pigmentation effect.

Considering the possible mixtures of the G (gey) and the M (modifier) genes would be possible to explain hazel eyes theoretically. Anytime an individual get G with the M gene he will obtain hazel eyes. Thus, if a person has the following mixtures: GGMM, GbMM, GGMm, and GbMm he will have hazel eyes. If the person has GGmm or Gbmm he will own green eyes and if he has bbMM, bbMm, or bbmm he will have blue eyes.

Hazel eye genetics will come to clarity sooner. For a while, it’s the presentation of Dr. Starr that gives the public the best explanation so far.

Genetics likewise determines the human characteristics of blue eyes, blonde hair, and red hair.

Hazel Eye Uniqueness

Hazel eyes have a brown ring around the iris, and either green or blue coloring around the outside part of the ring. If you take a closer look, darker inner ring is bordered by a lighter outer ring.

Brown eyes have been known for dominance and green ones are least common. There is a diversity of colors and shades in between. Likewise, several strange eye colors like red and violet exist while brown, green and blue eye color comes from a pigment identified as melanin. Brown eyes have dominant melanin in the iris whereas green eyes have less, and blue eyes have diminutive or no pigment at all.

Indeed, hazel eye color is the most misread eye color of all due to the border of brown and green. Thus, it is a pretty indefinite description. But to be particular, hazel eyes can be called as a mixture of brown and green. Various tinctures of brown to dark golden and green are often found with these eyes. They are brown near the cornea and golden to green towards the outer sides of the eyeball. People with hazel characteristics are beautiful and gorgeous with one of the most captivating pair of eyes.[ad#afterpost]

Filed Under: Genetics

  • « Go to Previous Page
  • Go to page 1
  • Go to page 2
  • Go to page 3
  • Go to page 4
  • Go to Next Page »

Primary Sidebar

RECENT ARTICLES

  • Why Do I Feel Tired After Eating?
  • Adverse Effects of Artificial Food Coloring on Children
  • List of Flowers You Can Eat and Their Health Benefits
  • Tips on How to Boost Your Metabolism
  • Best Workout Music for the iPod
  • What is the average bench press for a man?
  • Top 5 Healthiest Types of Cooking Oil
  • The Best Exercises for an Apple Body Shape
  • Beyonce’s Workout Secrets for a Sexy Physique
  • How Healthy Can Kimchi Be?

TOPICS

  • Allergies (5)
  • Alternative Medicine (22)
  • Biology (28)
  • Chemistry (1)
  • Diet and Nutrition (9)
  • Environmental Science (8)
  • Genetics (19)
  • Health (126)
  • Laboratory Tests (5)
  • Medicine (71)
  • Physical Fitness (1)
  • Science and Technology (1)
  • Transferred post (59)
  • Uncategorized (3)

Footer

MEDICAL DISCLAIMER

The contents of the TheBrightestHub.com Site, such as text, graphics, images, and other material contained on the TheBrightestHub.com Site (“Content”) are for informational purposes only. The Content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on the TheBrightestHub.com Site.

Copyright © 2021 · Genesis Sample on Genesis Framework · WordPress · Log in

7ads6x98y